XPS

Battery-material characterisation usually falls into three layers. Diffraction and electron microscopy read structure and morphology. Raman spectroscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) read chemical state. In-situ diffraction and absorption read the charge–discharge process. In an all-solid-state cell the interface reactions often sit inside the sample, so that part leans on synchrotron X-ray diffraction (SXRD) and X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS), which can penetrate the cell. ...